Current Status of Transboundary Fish Diseases in Malaysia: Occurrence, Surveillance, Research and Training


Faazaz Abd. Latiff

National Fish Health Research Centre
Fisheries Research Institute
11960 Batu Maung, Penang, Malaysia

Introduction

Malaysia lies within 1000 and 1190 East longitudes, and 70 North latitude (Fig. 1). Neighbouring countries are Thailand to the north and Singapore to the south. The country consists of two land masses with a total area of 330,434 square kilometres: Peninsular Malaysia is located south of Thailand, while East Malaysia, comprising the states of Sabah and Sarawak, stretches along

the northern part of Borneo. The two land masses are separated by the South China Sea. Malaysia has a total coastline of 4,675 km, with 2,068 km for the Peninsula and about 2,607 km for East Malaysia. It is on a strategic location along Straits of Malacca and southern South China Sea. The fisheries sector plays an important role in providing fish as a source of food and protein. It contributes about 1.54% of the GDP and provides direct employment to 84,496 fishermen and 22,108 fish culturists. Over the years, the industry has succeeded in achieving a steady production from its marine inshore fisheries amounting to an average of 1.06 million tons (Annual Fisheries
Statistics, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001). In 2001, the fisheries sector produced RM 5.45 billion (Euro 1.25 billion) consisting of 1,408,308 metric tons (MT) of fish valued at RM 5.37 billion, and 338 million pieces of ornamental fish valued at RM 81 million. Statistically, the sector recorded an overall decrease in production by 3.12%, but an increased value of 0.06% compared to 2000 figures. Production from marine capture fisheries yielded 1,231,289 MT with a value of RM 4.17 billion. Within the sector, the coastal fisheries remained the major contributor with a production of 1,063,363 MT valued at RM 3.66 billion. The aquaculture sector recorded a production of 177,019 MT, which constituted 12.6% of the total fish production valued at RM 1,206.59 million. The inland fisheries sector remained insignificant producing only 3,446 MT or 0.24% of the total fish production (Annual Fisheries Statistics, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001). The lists of aquatic animal species traded live for food and other purposes are given in Appendices 1A-1F.

I. Current Status of Koi Herpesvirus Disease (KHVD) in the Production of Common Carp and Koi 

I-1. Production of Common Carp and Koi

Malaysia has been the largest producer for ornamental fish. Almost 90 percent of these fish and aquatic plants have been exported to Singapore and Hong Kong, France, Germany, United Kingdom, Thailand, Indonesia, Holland, United States of America and the Philippines (Fisheries News, April 2002). At the same time Malaysia is importing koi carp from Japan, Indonesia, Singapore, Thailand, Hong Kong and Taiwan with shipments through the Kuala Lumpur International Airport (KLIA)(Tables 1a-1b). Besides koi, Malaysia has also other carps and the production for the major species are tabulated in Appendices 2-5. Appendix 6 shows carp fry production from government hatcheries. Table 1c shows the number of koi that had been exported through the Bayan Lepas International Airport (BLIA) in Penang. There are 14 big koi fish producers in Malaysia.

I-2. Koi Herpesvirus Disease (KHVD) of Common Carp and Koi

Among the koi diseases reported in Malaysia was cyprinid herpesvirus (CHV) in the early 1990s reported by the University Putra Malaysia (UPM) in Serdang, Selangor. The gross pathology observed were non-necrotizing, benign neoplasm on the skin with whitish, soft, warty lesions, epidermal echymotic haemorrhages and lordosis (Hassan et al., 1995). The virus was able to multiply in BF-2 and BB cell lines. Monoclonal antibody and structural analyses were performed on this virus (Abdullah, 2004). The Department of Fisheries (DOF) Malaysia had been alarmed by the
koi herpesvirus disease (KHVD) which was reported in Indonesia in 2002. The government took immediate action to ban the importation of koi especially from Indonesia. Tables 1a-1b show there was no koi importation from Indonesia in 2003. Until today, there is no outbreak of koi herpesvirus (KHV) in Malaysia. To confirm the matter, a survey was started in 2002 by UPM to screen for this virus with funding from the Ministry of Science and Environment. The area covered for the survey included Selangor and Perak and the survey is still going on. All samples were Malaysian hybrid of koi. Polymerase chain reaction techniques using koi herpesvirus (KHV) primers reported from Israel’s cases had been used for this purpose and until now the results are negative (Abdullah, 2004).

I-3. Production of Ornamental Fish

The total production of ornamental fish increased by 10.4% from 306,096,870 pieces in 2000 to 338,055,460 pieces in 2001. In terms of value, the increase was 12.6% from RM 71.95 million in 2000 to RM 81.03 million in 2001. Johor remains as the main producer of ornamental fish contributing 263,760, 236 pieces, which was 78% of the total production of ornamental
fish in 2001. Table 2 shows the estimated total production of ornamental fish and its value for 1997-2001. Appendix 1 lists the common English, local and scientific names of the fishes which are found in Malaysia. Ornamental fish production for 2001 according to group follows:

II. Current Status of Viral Diseases in the Production of Shrimps and Prawns

II-1. Production of Shrimps

a. Production of Tiger Shrimp (Penaeus monodon) and White Shrimp (P. merguiensis)
The shrimp industry consists of the capture and aquaculture sectors. From capture fisheries using push nets and trawlers, 77,465 MT of shrimp worth of RM 875.5 million (Euro 203 million) were harvested in 2001. This figure is expected to remain constant for the next decade as a result of the
moratorium imposed on trawling in the coastal areas. Shrimp aquaculture is fast growing and production figure in 2001 was 27,013 MT worth RM 937.5 million (Euro 175 million). Two species are cultured: tiger shrimp Penaeus monodon and the white shrimp P. merguiensis. Table 3 shows the estimated total production of shrimps (Saidin, 2003; Syed Omar, 2004).

Pond culture technology developed rapidly in the early 1980s with the importation of postlarvae from Taiwan. Malaysia is blessed with abundant supply of tiger shrimp broodstocks in the coastal areas of Sabah and Sarawak. The development of captive maturation and breeding technology resulted to the mushrooming of private hatcheries. Currently, there are 160 shrimp hatcheries with more than 80% in West Malaysia producing about 8 billion postlarvae annually. The outbreak of white spot virus disease in the mid-1990s had affected many farmers resulting in economic losses amounting to about USD25 million (Euro 21 million). Thus, the shrimp aquaculture technology evolved from open culture system to close system to combat disease problems, particularly white spot syndrome. At present, there are 1,126 shrimp farms employing about 22,000 farmers. Twenty percent of these are big farms having more than 20 to a few hundred ponds. Small and medium farms have less than 10 ponds. The culture practice is intensive with high inputs that produce an annual average of 3.5 MT. In 2001, Malaysia exported about 144,590 MT of fish and fishery products valued at RM1.35 billion which mainly came from the exported shrimp products. The biggest exports went to Italy and Japan. There had been reports of Litopenaeus vannamei being cultured illegally in the state of Perak in 2003, but no official written documents had been submitted since the farmers were very uncooperative (Saidin, 2003; Syed Omar, 2004).

b. Production of Freshwater Prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii)
Macrobrachium rosenbergii has always been found in Malaysian rivers. The fry and culture production figures are shown in Table 4.

Spawners are obtained locally and postlarvae are produced by private and government hatcheries. Grow-out culture is carried out in earthen ponds. There has been no record of importation for the species.

II-2. Major Shrimp Diseases

A. White Spot Syndrome Virus (WSSV)
WSSV is one of the most devastating viruses to infect penaeid shrimp. First discovered in Taiwan in 1992, it has spread rapidly to most growing countries in Asia. In Malaysia, it was first reported in 1994 and had spread to affect 80% of farms by 1996. Many species of penaeid shrimps can be infected, as well as crabs, spiny lobsters, and fresh water prawn. A number of small aquatic arthropods can harbour the virus. Virulence studies have shown that WSSV isolates are extremely virulent, with cumulative mortalities reaching 100%. During the second half of 2003, WSSV had reduced the annual production to 20,000 MT, 15% of which was Litopenaeus vannamei.

a. Etiology
White spot syndrome virus, a double stranded DNA virus within a new group Nimaviridae. 

b. Clinical Signs
The shrimp experience anorexia and lethargy having loose cuticle with numerous white spots (0.5-2 mm) on the inside surface of the carapace. Moribund shrimp showed pink to red discoloration.

B. Bacterial White Spot Syndrome (BWSS)
It affects P. monodon and was first reported in 1998 (Wang et al., 1999, 2000). 

a. Etiology
Bacillus subtilis has been suggested due to its association with the white spots.

b. Clinical Signs
Dull white spots on carapace and all over the body. The white spots are rounded but not dense. Shrimp exhibit delayed moulting and reduced growth.

C. Yellow Head Virus (YHV)
It affects P. monodon, Acetes spp. and other small shrimps. Tests that had been conducted, so far, gave negative results.

a. Etiology
YHV is a single stranded RNA, rod-shaped, enveloped, cytoplasmic virus likely related to members of family Coronaviridae.

b. Clinical Signs
The disease causes abrupt cessation of feeding. Shrimp aggregate at edges of pond or near surface. The hepatopancreas become discolored giving a yellowish appearance and shrimp generally becomes abnormally pale.

c. Significance
YHV has been reported in the absence of the classic yellowish cephalothorax. The clinical signs are not always present. Postlarvae (PL20-25) and older shrimp are more susceptible where mortality can reach 100% within 3-5 days. It is believed that infection can be transmitted horizontally and vertically by shrimp having chronic sub-clinical infection.

II-3. Significant and Emerging Viral Diseases of Macrobrachium rosenbergii
There is no record of any viral disease in M. rosenbergii. From normal observation, the prawns in the ponds may exhibit necrotic shells at most.

III. Surveillance, Monitoring and Diagnosis of Diseases of Aquatic Animals

III-1. Responsible Facility and Personnel
The responsible or Competent Authority (CA), facilities, and their locations are as follows:

Fish Quarantine and Quality Control Division
Department of Fisheries Malaysia,
Ministry of Agriculture and Agro-base Industry,
8th & 9th Floor, Wisma Tani,
Jalan Sultan Salahuddin,
50628 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

The functions of this division are to:

  • Conduct fish inspection and quarantine procedures on imported live fish

  • Conduct regular inspection on health status and sanitary conditions of registered fish farms particularly those with fish for export market

  • Conduct inspection of live fish at the point of exits prior to the issuance of Health Certificates

  • Ensure fish which are controlled by CITES are imported with valid documents. All CITES fish can only be exported through the Kuala Lumpur International Airport (KLIA), Sepang 

  • Provide extension services in fish diagnosis and treatment

a. Location of Facilities

1. Fish Health Management and Quarantine Center 
Department of Fisheries Malaysia
Jalan Pekeliling 4
46000 KLIA Sepang
Selangor

2. Fish Quarantine Center
Jalan Batu Maung
11960 Batu Maung
Penang

3. Fish Health Management and Quarantine Center
Bukit Kayu Hitam
06050 Jitra
Kedah

4. Fish Health Management and Quarantine Center
Kompleks Sultan Abu Bakar
Tanjung Kupang
61560, Gelang Patah, Johore

5. Jabatan Perikanan Negeri Kelantan
Tingkat 6, Wisma Persekutuan
Jalan Bayam
15628 Kota Baru, Kelantan

b. Responsible Persons
The following are the personnel who take care of the various Quarantine
and Inspection Centers (QIC) in Peninsular Malaysia:

1. Mrs. Rosmawati Ghazali
2. Mr. Hamid Hassan
3. Mr. Nummeran Nordin
4. Mr. Salehudin Ismail
5. Mr. Khaidir Othman


No surveillance and monitoring for diseases of aquatic animals are
conducted regularly or periodically by these agencies due to staff constraints.
Whenever alerts of disease outbreaks are received, staff from QIC will inform
the state director and the National Fish Health Research Centre (NaFisH)
will be instructed to investigate the case with them.

III-2. Diagnostic Capabilities and Major Diseases of Aquatic Animals

a. Definition of Levels of Diagnosis

Level I: Diagnostic activity limited to observation of animal and the environment, and clinical examination (On Site or Field Diagnosis)
Level II: Diagnostic activity includes Parasitology, Bacteriology, Mycology, and Histopathology (Laboratory Diagnosis)
Level III: Diagnostic activity includes Virology, Electron microscopy, Molecular biology and Immunology (Laboratory Diagnosis)

All of the above-mentioned QICs have Level I capability for disease diagnosis. Table 5 lists the other fish health laboratories in Malaysia.

IV. Quarantine Services to Prevent Entry of Diseases of Aquatic Animals

IV-1. Responsible Agency and Personnel

For quarantine services, the same laboratories and agencies are involved
as reported in section III-1. Level I and sometimes Level II of diagnosis are
available in these stations.

IV-2. Procedures and Requirements for Importation
Malaysia is one of the countries which follows the Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations (FAO) procedures and techniques for

fish quarantine. Quarantine measures are necessary to facilitate transboundary trade in live fish. This helps to minimize the risk of spreading infectious diseases. Appropriate infrastructure or facilities is important to ensure no possible escape of pathogen to other aquaculture establishments, the environment, or to any natural aquatic resources or systems.

a. Procedures for Importation

The following documents have to be provided:
1) Application Form, FQ1DOF;
2) Import Licence from Fisheries Development Board (LKIM);
3) Import Permit from DOF;
4) Health Certificate from the exporting country;
5) Details of species (common and scientific name, quantity, number
of containers/ cartons/packages);
6) 2 copies of invoices;
7) Airway Bill;
8) Custom Form K; and
9) CITES Certificate, where applicable.


b. Quarantine Procedures (Import)

1) Importer/owner must have quarantine facilities approved by the CA;
2) Upon arrival, all consignment must be quarantined for specified duration;
3) Adequate samples of every species must be sent to the laboratory for observations;
4) Used water, packing materials, containers and other associated shipping materials must be disinfected/sterilised;
5) Treatment for infected fish until all fish is free of diseases should be done;
6) If treatment is not successful, the consignment should be destroyed;
7) If extended period of quarantine is necessary, approval from the CA should be obtained;
8) Any abnormality/mortality during quarantine should be recorded;
9) Dead animals should be buried or destroyed in an incinerator; and
10) Only fish certified as pathogen-free can be released

c. Quarantine Area
The quarantine area or premise to hold live aquatic species should conform to certain requirements as stipulated by the CA. The following requirements must be followed or complied to by the owner, or the importer or exporter, in order that quarantine measures can be effectively undertaken:

1) The location of the approved quarantine premise is easily accessible to facilitate inspection by the CA;
2) The quarantine premises must be located in an area free of flood, and away from any other aquaculture establishments including recreational fish farms, food processing plants, and natural aquatic systems such as rivers, lakes, wetlands and reservoirs;3) The quarantine room or area must have a clear signage; 
4) The quarantine room or area must be used exclusively for quarantine purposes;
5) The quarantine room must be fully enclosed, and walls and floor must be impervious and sufficiently smooth to facilitate cleaning and disinfection. Windows, if installed must be sealed or screened against entry of insects. The door must be self-closing and fitted with insect screen or insect proof screen door;
6) The floor must be able to contain spilt water, and must facilitate complete drainage into a treatment tank or reservoir approved by the CA;
7) Used water must be treated before discharge;
8) Adequate facilities must be provided to disinfect all equipment used;
9) Facilities must be provided for staff and inspectors to wash their hands and foot wears prior to entering and leaving the quarantine room; 
10) All tanks and associated equipment must be properly and clearly labelled for the purpose of inspection;
11) All tanks must provide good visibility to facilitate inspection;
12) The quarantine room must be sufficiently lighted to permit inspection;
13) All dead aquatic species must be temporarily kept in a separate freezer and properly labelled; and
14) The quarantine room must not be accessible to unauthorized persons.

d. Protocols for Introduction or Transfer

1) Any individual intending to introduce or transfer new live aquatic species for commercial purposes must obtain written approval from the CA.
2) Detailed information on the live aquatic species must be provided for risk analysis as follows:

a. feeding habits and food organisms utilized
b. reproductive pattern and strategy (when, where, how)
c. competition with other species
d. predation by or on other species
e. migration routes and timing (if applicable)
f. disease history

3) Once approval by the CA has been granted, only a small quantity (to be specified by CA) will be introduced.

i) Upon arrival, the consignment has to be surrendered to CA for
further risk analysis and monitoring.
ii) If the results of the risk analysis and monitoring indicate no
negative impact on the environment and living aquatic resources,
further introduction may be allowed.
iii) Once introduced, the importer or owner is responsible to submit
written report on the progress of the culture to the CA as and
when required.
iv) No movement or transfer is allowed from the owner’s premise
without the approval of the CA.

e. Species Already Used in Aquaculture
This group includes, but is not restricted to, live aquatic species which is introduced or transferred in large quantities without permanent occupation of the ecosystem (maintained in tanks or in outside systems with no access to open waters). The following are standard procedures in handling these species:

Inspection and Certification 
If continued movement from one country to another, or one area to another, is necessary to maintain the commercial enterprise, each shipment should include certification attesting to their pathogen- and disease-free status and should be inspected upon arrival for possible signs of pathogens by the CA. Quarantine measures may have to be carried out by the importer as and when required by the CA. Risk analysis may have to be carried out if the species is deemed to be susceptible to other diseases that may not be virulent in the country of origin.

Transport
The transport of live aquatic species should be done in such a manner as to avoid loss of water en-route to the importer or owner’s premises. If water loss is inevitable en-route, consideration of use of sterile water or water sterilization should be considered.

Handling
All packing materials and water must be appropriately and adequately disinfected upon arrival at the owner or importer’s premises and quarantine area.

Control
In order to control and contain any possible escape of pathogen, holding sites or quarantine area at the importer or owner’s premises must be secured against any means of escape.

f. Species Imported Solely for Scientific Purposes
Any person or research organization intending to import any live aquatic species for research purposes must not do so without prior consultation withthe CA.

The purpose of importation or introduction must be clearly stated. Prior to importation or introduction of any live aquatic species for research purposes, the CA should be notified giving details of the species, its history, biology, potential for pathogenic infection, and any other scientific information deemed necessary for the purpose of risk analysis.

  •  Risk analysis should be carried out rigorously before permission is granted. Importation can be allowed once the necessary documentations are in order and the Competent Authority is satisfied that would be imported species pose no danger to other natural living aquatic resources.

  • Upon arrival, the procedures as in item d. iii. shall be complied. The facilities in the laboratory or in any other premise where the research would be carried out should prevent any means of escape throughout the research activities.

  • Regular monitoring by the CA needs to be carried out, especially on health management.

  • All research findings should be made available to the CA.

  • Disposals or transfers to any other premise or destination are not allowed without prior approval of the CA.

g. Legislation, Laws and Regulations
Under legislation, Malaysia has to abide by the Fisheries Act 1985 (Act 317) Amendment 1993, Custom Act 1967 and CITES Regulations. To date, there is no special provision in the Fisheries Act which covers the need to quarantine live fish to prevent disease outbreak. However, Section 40(1) and 40(2) of the Fisheries Act does provide some control of aquatic animal disease.

Section 40 – Control of Live Fish
(1) Any person who:

a) Imports into or exports out of Malaysia;
b) Transports from West Malaysia into the Federal Territory (FT) of Labuan, states of Sabah and Sarawak;
c) Transports from FT of Labuan or the state of Sabah and Sarawak into West Malaysia
d) Transports from FT of Labuan into the state of Sabah and Sarawak;
e) Transports from the state of Sabah into the FT of Labuan or the state of Sarawak; or
f) Transports from state of Sarawak into the FT of Labuan or State of Sabah.

Live fish without a permit or in breach of any condition in a permit issued
by the Director General under this section shall be guilty of an offence.


(2) The Director General may impose such conditions as he thinks fit in
the permit, including conditions concerning the state of cleanliness of
the fish to be exported, imported or transported and measures to avoid
the spread of communicable fish diseases, or to avoid the release into
the natural environment of non-indigenous species of fish.

h. Import Prohibition
The following are prohibited for import by special directives from the Director General of Fisheries:

  1. Tiger shrimp broodstock

  2. Exotic white shrimp, Litopenaeu vannamei – fry and broodstock

  3. All exotic species for research purposes, without written approval from the Director General of Fisheries

  4. All species of piranhas

i. Export Prohibition
The following are prohibited for export by special directives from the Director General of Fisheries:

1. Tiger shrimp broodstock
2. All types of corals
3. Cockles (Anadara granosa) < 25mm in size
4. Grouper fry < 6in (15.24cm) in size


j. Penalties
Section 25(b) stipulates a penalty of not more than RM 20,000.00, or jail term not more than 2 years, or both.

IV-3. List of Quarantinable Diseases of Aquatic Animals
Following is the list of quarantinable diseases of aquatic animals:

a. Viral Diseases

  • White spot syndrome virus (WSSV)

  • Iridovirus

  • Viral nervous necrosis (VNN)

  • Taura syndrome virus (TSV)

  • Yellow head virus (YHV)

  • OIE listed diseases

  • Koi herpesvirus (KHV)

b. Bacterial Diseases

  • Septicemia and dropsy

  • Vibriosis

c. Fungal Diseases

  • None

d. Parasitic Diseases

  • Cryptocaryosis

e. Other Diseases

  • None

V. Research and Training of Fish Health Staff for Quarantine, Diagnosis, and Surveillance of Diseases of Aquatic Animals

a. Current Research Activities

  • Determination of protective antigens against Cryptocaryoniasis in marine fish cultures, for future vaccine development

  • Identification and diagnosis of fish viral pathogens

  • Streptococcosis in tilapia cultured in cages

  • Immunity of indigenous fish and shrimp to bacterial pathogens (Vibrio alginolyticus and Flexibacter columnaris) and protective ability of these bacterial immunogens

  • Morphological, serological and molecular characterisation of pathogens and non-pathogenic ectoparasites (Monogenea) on cultured and wild fish

  • Inventory of fish pathogens in local aquaculture

  • Epidemiology, immune response and diagnosis of blood parasites

  • Epidemiology of viral diseases in fish and shellfish: hatchery phase study

  • Development of rapid diagnostic technologies for screening and control of commercially important shrimp pathogens

  • Development of fish disease management system for species indigenous to local aquaculture

  • Isolation of microbial pathogens and development of effective vaccines and immunostimulants for fish and shrimp cultures

  • Development of a DNA vaccine against Vibrio cholerae

  • Establishment of primer databank for rapid identification of local bacterial pathogens

b. Departments and Universities for Research of Aquatic Animal Diseases

i. Department of Fisheries, Malaysia
ii. University Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor
iii. University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur
iv. University Science, Penang
v. Kolej Universiti Sains dan Teknologi Malaysia, Trengganu
vi. Department of Veterinary, Malaysia
vii. Department of Environment
viii. Lembaga Kemajuan Ikan Malaysia (LKIM, or the Malaysian Fisheries Authority Board)


c. Training

Training for fish disease are conducted by the Department of Fisheries National Fish Health Research Centre (NaFish), Fisheries Research Institute,
11960, Batu Maung, Penang.

Fish Health staff in Malaysia are trained to detect clinical symptoms, and to conduct basic parasitology, bacteriology, water quality and basic techniques using rapid test kits in the field for quarantine, diagnosis and surveillance of aquatic animals. Research Officers are trained in the postgraduate level at various Universities (USM, UPM and UM). Short-term trainings at AAHRI
and SEAFDEC have also been awarded to them. Training on TEM, SEM, X-ray techniques, virology, immunology and molecular techniques are required to support the needs for research,
surveillance, monitoring and diagnosis of fish diseases in the country. The Department of Fisheries Malaysia is continuing its efforts to update the quarantine system with more infrastructure and capability build-up since there is increased activity in live fish movements from aquarium fish and aquaculture industry within the country and throughout the world. Other proactive steps to be implemented include:

  • Highly trained man-power inputs (fish disease diagnosticians, backed by services in virology, bacteriology, mycology, parasitology and water chemistry);

  • Fish disease monitoring system (or surveillance) with legislation and enforcement;

  • Epidemiology data base to facilitate early warning system; and

  • Increased capability in fish diagnostics with R & D back-up.

However, the cooperation and commitment of the industry stake-holders are also expected so that a well accepted and an effective quarantine system can be operational. In any case, in order to ensure the responsibilities of farmers, culturists and hobbyists, the Department of Fisheries has drawn a number of code of practices for the sustainability of aquaculture and fisheries.

d. Major Publications in Aquatic Animal Diseases
The major publications (scientific papers, reports, and others) on viral diseases of fishes and shrimps in Malaysia from 1998 to 2003 (in English or in local language) are listed in the References marked with an asterisk (*).

References
Annual Fisheries Statistics. 1998. Volume 1. Department of Fisheries Malaysia, 8th & 9th Floor, Wisma Tani, Jalan Sultan Salahudin, 50628 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

Annual Fisheries Statistics. 1999. Volume 1. Department of Fisheries Malaysia, 8th & 9th Floor, Wisma Tani, Jalan Sultan Salahudin, 50628 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

Annual Fisheries Statistics. 2000. Volume 1. Department of Fisheries Malaysia, 8th & 9th Floor, Wisma Tani, Jalan Sultan Salahudin, 50628 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

Annual Fisheries Statistics. 2001. Volume 1. Department of Fisheries Malaysia, 8th & 9th Floor, Wisma Tani, Jalan Sultan Salahudin, 50628 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

Abdullah A. 2004. Pre-KHV Symposium Country Report. Presented at the International Symposium on Koi Herpesvirus Disease Control in Yokohama, Japan, 13 March 2004.

Abdullah SZ, Kua BC. 2003. An Overview of Diseases in Marine Food Fish. Paper presented at the Harmonization of Quarantine Procedures for Live Fish Among ASEAN Member Countries held on 24-26 February 2003 in Penang, Malaysia.

*Hassan MD, Samsoon S, Abdul Manaf A, Shariff M. 1995. Structural analyses of a fish herpes virus isolated from Malaysian koi carps with pox disease. Malaysian Science and Technology Congress, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

Lihan S. 2003. Microbiological Hazard of Antibiotic Resistance Associated with Fish. Fish Mail 12:11-13

Mohd. Noor N, Fauzidah O. 2003. Import, Export, Transport and Quarantine Procedures of Live Fish in Malaysia. Paper presented at the Harmonization of Quarantine Procedures for Live Fish among ASEAN Member Countries held on 24-26 February 2003, Penang, Malaysia.

*Musa N, Leong LK. 2003. Luminous vibriosis: A major threat in penaeid shrimp farming. Fish Mail. 12: 3-5

*Oseko N. 2002. Development of technology for the diagnosis and prevention of shrimp viral diseases. Paper presented at the Symposium on White Spot Virus of Shrimp in Penang, 18-19 September 2002, p.12-30. 

Palanisamy V, Abdullah SZ, Chuah TT. 2001. Healthy and Wholesome Aquaculture. A paper presented at the National Conference on Food Sustainability and Safety in the New Era: Fish For All, held in Kuala Lumpur on 8-9 May 2001.

*Palanisamy V. 2002. Some aspects of carriers and vectors of WSSV. Paper presented at the Symposium on white spot virus of shrimp in Penang 18-19 September 2002, p. 32-37.

Syed Omar SJ. 2004. Experiences of shrimp producers from Malaysian Shrimp Industries Association. A Powerpoint document presented at the Investment Seminar: Market Access, Opportunities and Challenges in the Shrimp Industry in Kuala Lumpur on 14 January 2004.

Saidin T. 2003. Food Safety Measures in Shrimp Industry in Malaysia. Paper presented at the Partnership Workshop For Shrimp Product Safety, Surabaya, Indonesia on 6-8 October 2003.

*Subramaniam K. 2003. Use of probiotics to provide suitable culture environment and enhance the defence mechanism of shrimp against white spot virus (WSV). Paper presented at the Symposium on White Spot Virus of Shrimp in Penang on 18-19 September 2002, p. 53-69.

*Wang YG, Hassan MD, Shariff M, Zamri SM, Chen X. 1999. Histopathology and cytopathology of white spot syndrome virus (WSSV) in cultured Penaeus monodon from Peninsular Malaysia with emphasis on pathogenesis and the mechanism of white spot formation. Dis Aquat Org. 39:1-11.

*Wang YG, Lee KL, Najiah M, Shariff M, Hassan MD. 2000. A new bacterial white spot syndrome (BWSS) in cultured tiger shrimp Penaeus monodon and its comparison with white spot syndrome (WSS) caused by virus. Dis Aquat Org. 41:9-18.

Yaakob A, Fariduddin O, Badrulnizam B. 2002. Ciri-ciri postlarva bagi tujuan pencegahan penyakit pada ternakan udang harimau. Paper presented at the Symposium on white spot virus of shrimp in Penang on 18-19 September 2002, p. 38-50.

Zulkifli AR. 2001. Freshwater Aquaculture: Issues and Challenges. Paper presented at the National Conference on Food Sustainability and Safety in the New Era: Fish For All, held in Kuala Lumpur on 8-9 May 2001.