Current Status of Transboundary Fish Diseases in Indonesia: Occurrence, Surveillance, Research and Training


Agus Sunarto1, Widodo2, Taukhid1, Isti Koesharyani1
Hambali Supriyadi1, Lila Gardenia1, Budi Sugianti3
and Djumbuh Rukmono4

1Fish Health Research Laboratory, Agency for Marine and Fisheries Research Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries Jl. Ragunan 20, Pasar Minggu, Jakarta, Indonesia

 2 Centre for Fish Quarantine, Secretariat General Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries Soekarno-Hattta International Airport, Jakarta, Indonesia

3Centre for Fish Quarantine, Secretariat General Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries Jl. MT Haryono Kav 52-5, Jakarta, Indonesia

4Directorate of Fish Health and Environment Directorate General for Aquaculture Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries Jl. Harsono RM, Building B, 4th Floor, Ragunan, Jakarta, Indonesia

Introduction

Aquaculture industry in Indonesia has been growing rapidly in the past  decade. It plays an important role in rural development, a source for export earning, and has been a leading sector in economic growth. This development
is supported by a great potential of resources. The total potential area for aquaculture industry development is estimated at 27,671,778 ha, consisting of about 24,528,178 ha for marine, 913,000 ha for brackishwater ponds and
2,230,600 ha for freshwater culture (Table 1). However, concurrent with aquaculture potential, substantial problems
are being faced because they hamper the development of aquaculture. The main problem encountered along with aquaculture production in Indonesia has always been associated with disease outbreaks and environmental
pollution. Substantial economic losses in Indonesian aquaculture have been mainly due to serious disease outbreaks. Recently, the National Fish Health

Commission (NFHC) declared 4 major economically-important diseases of aquatic animals in Indonesian aquaculture: white spot syndrome virus (WSSV) in tiger shrimp (Penaeus monodon), Taura syndome virus (TSV) in Pacific white shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei), viral nervous necrosis (VNN) in grouper (Cromileptes altivelis and Epinephelus spp.) and seabass (Lates calcarifer), and koi herpesvirus (KHV) in koi and common carp (Cyprinus carpio). All of the diseases are associated with transboundary introduction or movement of aquatic species (Table 2).

I. Current Status of Koi Herpesvirus Disease (KHVD) in the Production of Common Carp and Koi

I-1. Production of Common Carp and Koi

a. Production of Common Carp
Common carp (Cyprinus carpio) is the main freshwater fish cultured in Indonesia. Annual production of cultured common carp in the last five years follows 56,546 metric tons (MT)(1998), 57,278 MT (1999), 75,322 MT (2000), 76,475 MT (2001), and 83,885 MT (2002)(DGA, 2003). Fifty percent of this annual production is contributed in West Java. In addition to the cultured common carp, the fish are also found in wild habitats such as rivers, lakes and reservoirs. However, there are no available data of carp production in the wild. There are 13 local strains of common carp in Indonesia: namely Majalaya, Rajadanu, Sutisna Kuningan, Sianjur Wildan, Aki Ending Cianjur, Cangkringan, Samin Sumbar, Kancra Domas, Karper Kaca, Sinyonya, Punten, Merah Sumbar and Bali. Spawners, broodstock or fingerlings are locally available. Indonesia does not import or export common carp. The broodstock are usually kept in earthen ponds or concrete tanks and the seeds are produced either by provincial breeding centres (Balai Benih Ikan, BBI)
or by farmers. The eggs and juveniles are produced using combination of hatchery and outdoor pond facilities. Hatched larvae obtained through egg stripping are kept inside the hatchery until they start swimming few days after hatching. The major food for the larvae are Daphnia or Moina, rotifers, and artificial diet. The larvae are then raised into fingerlings in nursery ponds, prior to stocking into growout ponds or cages. The annual production of common carp seeds is around 10 billion/year. There are three types of common carp culture systems: floating netcage culture in lakes or reservoirs, running water system (raceway) in rivers or streams, and in earthen ponds. The floating net-cages apply a double cage culture system whereby the upper cage measures 7 ' 7 m with 2.5 m water depth and used for common carp, and the lower layer is for Nile tilapia. Running water culture systems are situated in the bank of a river
and measures 7 ' 2.5 m with 1.5 m water depth. Earthen pond extensive culture system has low stocking density and located in a shallow water pond. This system has less water exchange, and poor quality of feed and
other management measures. The production of common carp in Indonesia is hampered by the shortage of good quality broodstocks and seeds, and, recently, by mass mortality due to koi herpesvirus (KHV). The government promotes selective breeding program to ensure the quality of broodstock and seeds. However, there are no effective management measures to control the KHV outbreak. 

b. Production of Koi
Koi (Cyprinus carpio) is an important freshwater ornamental fish cultured in Indonesia. However, there is lack of information on its annual production. Koi is cultured in various systems as shown in Table 3. Indonesia mainly imports high quality koi broodstock from China, Japan and Singapore. The quality of color of koi mostly depends on its genetic
make-up (70%), water quality (20%) and other factors (10%). The optimum water quality for cultured koi includes pH of 7.2-7.4, low level of iron, chlorine and sulfur, high dissolved oxygen and temperature range of 25-300C.

I-2. Koi Herpesvirus Disease (KHVD) of Common Carp and Koi

a. History, Geographic Distribution and Clinical Signs
The first episode of mass mortalities of cultured koi was recorded in March 2002 in Blitar, East Java. It occurred after heavy rains among fishes newly introduced from Surabaya, the capital city of East Java. The fish were imported
from China through Hong Kong in December 2001 and January 2002. The outbreak occurred in koi of all ages causing mortality of up to 80-95%. The diseased fish showed a blister-like lesion on the skin, called 'penyakit melepuh'
in Indonesian language. Although gill damage was also observed in the diseased fish, not much attention was given to that clinical sign. Blitar is well known as the centre for koi production in the country. The koi, including the infected
fish batch, were distributed all over the country, with Central Java, West Java and Jakarta as the main market (Sunarto et al., 2002). The second disease outbreak occurred in cultured common carp at the end of April of 2002 in Subang regency, West Java. Due to immediate harvest, there was an over supply of fish in the region. Therefore, farmers sold the infected fish at very low price (Rp 3,000/kg; normal price Rp 7,000/kg). After this, the outbreaks spread to neighboring provinces mainly through fish movements. The third episode of the outbreak occurred in May to early June 2002 in cultured common carp in floating net-cages in the Citarum river system. The system is composed of the Saguling reservoir in the upper reaches, Cirata in the middle, and Jatiluhur down stream. There are 4,425, 33,000, and 2,000 units of floating net-cages, mostly with common carp, in Saguling, Cirata and Jatiluhur reservoirs, respectively. Weeks before the outbreak, farmers introduced common carp from the Subang region to this system due to the low price of fish. The fourth episode of the outbreak occurred in cultured common carp during in February 2003 in Lubuk Lingau regency, South Sumatera. The gross signs of the diseased common carp were extremely similar with that observed previously in koi and common carp in Java islands. Common carp farms at Lubuk Lingau were infected with the disease coming from Cirata reservoir, West Java through fish transfer by traders. The outbreak then spread to neighbouring districts and provinces including Bengkulu in the south and Jambi in the west.

b. Species Affected
Although the disease was observed as being highly contagious and extremely virulent, morbidity and mortality were restricted to koi and common carp populations. Several other species stocked within the same ponds or cages remained completely asymptomatic to the disease. However, it is not known yet whether these fish harbor the virus and act as carriers. Screening of other cultured and wild fishes collected from the same cage, pond or canal of
surrounding farm showed PCR negative results against KHV. The fish include Nile tilapia, giant gouramy, native catfish and Siam catfish. 

c. Diagnosis
A case definition was established as an important step in the disease investigation in order to determine whether an individual fish, pond or tank is suffering from KHV disease or not. The case definition was used to minimize mis-diagnosis. The case definition included high mortality in koi or common carp, in which the fish shows gill damage, with or without other skin lesions. The only consistent clinical sign found during the outbreak was severe gill necrosis. Therefore, this pathognomonic clinical signs was used to establish a presumptive diagnosis against KHV (Level I diagnosis). Although KHV histopathological changes (Level II diagnosis) were not obviously observed in most of the diseased fish, some of diseased fish showed consistent findings with various lesions. These include intranuclear amphophilic inclusion bodies with peripheral chromatin margination within the gill epithelium. Similar inclusions
were also observed within the kidney tubular epithelium accompanied by nephrocalcinosis. PCR detection (Level III diagnosis) of KHV was carried out using specific primers set developed by Gray et al. (2002) and Gilad et al. (2002).

d. Socio-economic Impact
The first report regarding the economic losses due to the outbreak was made by the head of the Association of Ornamental Fish Culture of Blitar regency, East Java. They reported that in Blitar alone, the outbreak destroyed
high quality koi belonging to 5,000 fish farmers with economic losses of more than Rp5 billion (US$ 0.5 millions) within the first 3-months of the outbreak.As of July 2002, the Task Force estimated that the loss of revenue in the sector and the socio-economic impact to the rural farming communities was in the region of US$5 million. As the outbreaks continued to spread to new areas, the socio-economic impact due to the diseases escalated. The Directorate of
Fish Health and Environment (DFHE) estimated that as of December 2002 and 2003, losses due to the outbreak were US$10 million and US$15 million, respectively.

II. Current Status of Viral Diseases in the Production of Shrimps 

II-1. Production of Shrimps

a. Production of Tiger Shrimp (Penaeus monodon)
Culture of black tiger shrimp (P. monodon) is the most important aquaculture industry in Indonesia. It is notable that Indonesia has a large potential area of approximately 4 million ha of mangrove tidal swamps for shrimp culture, plus
generations of experience in shrimp pond aquaculture. The government has given high priority to shrimp aquaculture. Since the government launched the programme on shrimp pond intensification in 1984, referred to as 'program
intensifikasi tambak' in the Indonesian language, shrimp pond culture has rapidly expanded. This programme has been successful in increasing shrimp production from 15,400 MT in 1986 to 159,597 MT in 2002 (DGA , 2004) (Table 4).

b. Production of Pacific White Shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei)
The Government of Indonesia released a permit that allowed importation of Pacific white shrimp (L. vannamei) on 10 October 2000 for research purposes only. The exotic shrimp was imported from Taiwan, Hawaii and America (Table
5). Based on Ministerial Decree No. 4/2001 dated 14 July 2001, the government allowed importation of Pacific white shrimp for culture purpose. Since then, the shrimp has been cultured in 15 out of 30 provinces in Indonesia, namely North Sumatera, West Sumatera, South Sumatera, Riau, Bengkulu, Lampung, Banten, West Java, Central Java, Jogjakarta, East Java, Bali, West Nusa Tenggara, South Kalimantan and West Kalimantan. Up to July 2002, the production of the shrimp was 27,000 MT (Sugama, 2002). The broodstocks were imported from Taiwan, Hawaii and USA. The seeds are either imported or produced by local hatcheries.Local hatcheries in Lampung, West Java, Central Java, East Java and Bali produced 5-30 million seeds/cycle.

c. Production of Freshwater Prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii)
Freshwater prawn (M. rosenbergii) was mainly cultured in Java and Bali. The average annual production of freshwater prawn is 400 MT per year. The seeds are produced by either private or governmental breeding units (Table 6).

Freshwater prawn is cultured in earthen ponds or rice fields. The minimum size of the pond is 1000 m2. There are at least four types of freshwater pond culture systems; monoculture, polyculture with freshwater finfish, integrated
with paddy field, and integrated with poultry culture. No importation of freshwater prawn has been recorded.
II-2. White Spot Syndrome Virus (WSSV) The disease occurred in on-growing juvenile shrimp of all ages and sizes.
Moribund shrimp displayed red discoloration and white spots on the inside surface of carapace, body shell and appendages. The spots ranged from 0.5 to 3.0 mm in diameter. The lymphoid organ of the diseased shrimp was swollen
and shrunken.

a. Species Affected
The disease affected both cultured and wild penaeid shrimps. The major cultured shrimp species in Indonesia are black tiger shrimp (Penaeus monodon) and white shrimp (P. merguiensis). Infection with WSSV was also found in wild shrimp, Metapenaeus ensis. Recently, Pacific white shrimp (L. vannamei) was also affected by the disease, but WSSV infection has not yet been reported in L. stylirostris.

b. Epidemiology
Since the middle of 1994, a disease that caused cumulative mortality of up to 100% was reported in numerous shrimp farms in northern coast of East, Central and West Java, Indonesia. The new disease, in which the pathognomonic
characteristic sign was the presence of white spots on the cuticle, referred to as white spot syndrome ('penyakit bercak putih' in the Indonesian language), was the most threatening disease that had ever occurred in Indonesian shrimp
farms. The two earlier viral diseases of shrimp, i.e. monodon baculovirus (MBV) and yellow head virus (YHV) were less pathogenic than the newly emerged white spot syndrome virus (WSSV), the causative agent of white spot syndrome (WSS). The economic impact of WSSV in Indonesian shrimp industry is difficult to determine. It is estimated that in 1999 only 20% of shrimp ponds were in operation. Many of the ponds remained un-operated, with some being converted
to milkfish ponds. This phenomenon may be associated with environment deterioration and disease outbreaks, particularly WSSV.

c. Geographic Distribution and Transmission Issues
Outbreak of WSSV was first reported to occur in black tiger shrimp in Probolinggo, East Java and later in Tangerang, Serang and Karawang, West Java. The disease, causing severe losses, has spread to Bali, Nusa Tenggara, Sulawesi, Kalimantan and Sumatera. Virtually, the disease has spread throughout the country. The disease is vertically transmitted from infected broodstock to its offspring and horizontally transmitted from infected carriers
and contaminated environment. 

d. Availability of Diagnostics (Levels I, II and III)
At the farmer-level and district laboratories, WSSV may be diagnosed based on its pathognomonic clinical signs, i.e. the appearance of white spots in the carapace and body surface (diagnostic Level I). Histopathological changes (diagnostic Level II) and molecular-based methods (diagnostic Level III) are also used as a confirmative diagnosis for the disease. Almost all major fish disease laboratories are equipped with PCR units and capable for detection of WSSV.

e. Preventive and Control Methods
Managing WSSV should be done in all levels of shrimp production starting from shrimp hatchery up to the grow-out ponds. In hatcheries, PCR technique is used for screening broodstock before spawning. Only broodstocks that are
free from WSSV are used as spawners. The postlarvae (PLs) should also be screened for WSSV. If infected, the whole tank should be disinfected with with 20 ppm chlorine and then discarded. The combination of PCR technique and formalin treatment has been proven as the best strategy for managing WSSV in grow-out ponds. The benefit of PCR screening combined with formalin treatment is to maintain low-intensity of WSSV infections in shrimp, hence significantly reducing the disease outbreak in ponds. We adopted the technique developed by Chanratchakool and
Limsuwan (1994). WSSV-free PLs are bathed in 150 ppm formalin for 30 minutes to separate the weak and unhealthy individuals. Only the healthy PLs, which actively swimming against the water current, are then stocked into the ponds. WSSV status during the rearing periods is monitored through regular PCR checking at day 25 and day 55. Semi-quantitative PCR technique allows us to distinguished light and severe infection of WSSV. If the WSSV infection is light, the culture may be continued with improvement of culture condition. However, when the WSSV infection is severe, immediate harvest is the only way to reduce more economic losses on the part of the farmer. To maintain low level of WSSV infection, bio-security concept should be applied. Closed system with zero or minimum water exchange might be the best solution to have consistent and environmentally sound shrimp production. The key component of closed system is the application of bioremediator (probiotic) and vigorous aeration. Managing WSSV outbreak in grow-out shrimp may also be achieved through enhancement of shrimp defence mechanism using immunostimulants such as fucoidan, peptidoglycan, and lipopolysaccharide. Combination of prophylactic measures such as screening of PLs using PCR, use of specificpathogen-free broodstock and PLs, application of immunostimulants, and good management practices will be helpful in controlling WSSV outbreak in Indonesian shrimp farms.

II-3. Taura Syndrome Virus (TSV)
The Government of Indonesia officially released a permit that allowed importation of Pacific white shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) in 1999. The exotic shrimps should only be imported from Taura syndrome-free country. However, since November 2002, Taura Syndrome caused by Taura syndrome virus (TSV), an RNA virus, has been reported in L. vannamei in East Java.

a. Clinical Signs
TSV mostly caused mortality in 1-2 months old L. vannamei reared in intensive culture systems at the stocking density of 120 PLs/m2. Affected shrimp show reddish discoloration on the tail and multifocal necrosis shown as black spots on the body. 

b. Economic Losses
The disease caused up to 75% mortality, but there are no data on the economic impact of TSV to the Indonesian shrimp industry. It is suspected that the disease came to Indonesia due to illegal importation of broodstock and PL from sources with unreliable health status.

c. Epidemiology and Geographic Distribution
In response to Dr. Lightner's letter dated 4 November 2002 to the OIE pertaining to the 'confirmation of TSV in Indonesia', the Government of Indonesia conducted active surveillance in the islands of Java (East, Central and West Java) and Sumatera (Lampung province). TSV was first reported to occur in L. vannamei in 2002. Despite active surveillance in L. vannamei, TSV infection was not found in West Java and Banten provinces. However, most L. vannamei originating from East Java (Banyuwangi, Situbondo, Pasuruan, Bangil, Sidoarjo, Malang) were TSV positive. It is suspected that TSV first occurred in Banyuwangi and Situbondo before it spread to other districts in East Java through movement of infected post larvae. Banyuwangi and Situbondo are important production centers for P. monodon and L. vannamei, producing both PLs and marketable shrimps. Samples of P. monodon originating from Brebes (Central Java), Situbondo (East Java) and Bali islands were also PCR positive for TSV. The virus has also been found in L. vannamei from Maros (Sulawesi Islands) and Sumbawa Islands. 

d. Diagnostic Methods
Capability to diagnose shrimp viruses at all levels of diagnosis (Level I, II or III) is available in the country. However, PCR technique using both commercial kits and primers based on the OIE Manual were used as confirmatory diagnosis for the disease. 

e. Prevention and Control Methods
To prevent the introduction of TSV to their farms, most of shrimp farmers use specific-pathogen-free (SPF) and specific-pathogen-resistant (SPR) postlarvae, which are imported from Hawaii and Florida. The shrimp are then cultured in ponds that strictly apply bio-secure concepts similar with those for prevention of WSSV.

II-4. Significant and Emerging Viral Diseases of Macrobrachium rosenbergii 

No significant emerging viral disease of freshwater prawn has been recorded. This may be due to lack of intensive research on diseases affecting freshwater prawn. 

III. Surveillance, Monitoring and Diagnosis of Diseases of Aquatic Animals

III-1. Responsible Facility and Personnel

Since the Directorate General of Fisheries was promoted to become the Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries in 2001, three principal institutions have been created with mandates related to fish health management including
surveillance, monitoring and diagnosis. These institutions are the Directorate for Fish Health and the Environment (DFHE) under the Directorate General for Aquaculture, the Center for Fish Quarantine (CFQ) under the Secretariat
General, and the Central Research Institute for Aquaculture (CRIA) under the Agency for Marine and Fisheries Research (AMFR) (Appendix 1). Arthur (2003) advised that coordination and cooperation between the three principal
government agencies involved in fish health management should be further developed and strengthened through interagency consultative and working groups (Appendix 2). There are also various commissions and committees,
universities, professional associations, private sector representatives and other stakeholders who are concerned with the status of fish health management in the country.

III-2. Diagnostic Capabilities and Major Diseases of Aquatic Animals 

a. Fish Health Laboratories
Although Indonesia has a long history of work on fish diseases, there is very limited expertise and laboratory facilities within the country (Appendix 3). Most laboratories in Indonesia fall under Level I and Level II categories, capable of conducting fish disease diagnosis based on clinical signs and observation of environmental changes (Level I), and microbiology and histopathology (Level II). Viral diseases are becoming increasingly important to Indonesian aquaculture, and the country currently has little expertise or facilities to conduct research in this area. Specifically, there is lack of laboratory facilities and expertise for fish virology. A national laboratory for fish virology is being set up. However, staff expertise needs to be further developed. Despite the constraints, research activities related to virology
have been initiated at the Fish Health Research Laboratory in Jakarta, Gondol Research Station for Coastal Fisheries in Bali, and Brackishwater Aquaculture Development Centre in Jepara. 

b. Economically-Important Diseases of Aquatic Animals
The 4 major economically-important diseases of aquatic animals in Indonesian aquaculture declared by the National Fish Health Commission (NFHC) are shown in Table 7.

IV. Quarantine Services to Prevent Entry of Diseases of Aquatic Animals

IV-1. Responsible Agency and Personnel

The Center for Fish Quarantine (CFQ) of the Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries (MMAF) located in Jakarta manages fish quarantine in Indonesia. The Director of the Centre is under the supervision of the Secretary General of MMAF. The Director of the center supervises 41 Fish Quarantine Implementing Units consisting of 2 Fish Quarantine Regional Offices, 12 Fish Quarantine Stations and 27 Fish Quarantine Sub-Stations that are located all over the country.

IV-2. Procedure/Requirements for Imported/Arriving Live Fish/ Crustaceans at Port of Entry

According to the regulations on importation of fish, all importation of live fish, dead fish, and fish product is subject to the following conditions:

a. Importation must be made through designated points of entry;
b. It should be accompanied by a Fish Health Certificate; and
c. It should be notified and submitted to a Fish Quarantine Inspector upon arrival of the consignment.

In addition to the conditions mentioned above, importation of live fish must be covered by an Import Permit, which may require additional conditions for the said importation. The additional conditions will be determined on case-by-case
basis by the Director General of Fish Culture depending on the risk involved. 

a. Import Permit
The application for import permit shall be made in writing to the Director General of Fish Culture prior to importation of the fish. Copies of the application shall be sent to the Center for Fish Quarantine. Any applicant who has obtained
a fish import permit shall contact the Center for Fish Quarantine so that technical requirements for proper handling of the imported fish during the quarantine period can be prepared.

b. Quarantine Actions

1. Inspection

a) Inspection of documents Inspection of documents is performed to determine the presence of required documents, such as import permit and Fish Health Certificate. If the required documents are present, the consignment is subjected to health inspection.

b) Inspection of consignment When the required documents are fulfilled, the inspection of consignment is performed to detect the presence of quarantinable diseases. Inspection of consignment may be done on board or after it has been unloaded from the means of conveyance.

2. Detention
If after inspection it becomes evident that required documents have been fully complied with, carriers of pest and diseases may be detained for observation at a fish quarantine establishment.

3. Isolation and Observation
For further detection of certain quarantinable pests and diseases, which due to their nature, requires a definitely long period, special facilities, and controlled environmental conditions, carriers of pest and diseases that have been inspected may be isolated for observation. According to the MOA Decree No. 265 of 1990, isolation and observation in certain cases can be conducted at an approved private fish quarantine establishment.

4. Treatment
Treatment shall be performed if after observation it becomes evident that:

a) The carrier is infested or infected, or suspected being infested by quarantinable pest and diseases, or
b) The carrier is not free or suspected of being not free from quarantinable pest and diseases.

5. Refusal of Entry
Carriers of quarantinable pest and diseases shall be refused entry if it
becomes evident that:

a) After inspection on board, the carrier is infested by certain quarantinable pest and diseases designated by the Government, or in a decaying condition or damage, or belong to species prohibited to be imported.
b) The required quarantine documents have not yet been complied with, or 
c) After treatment on board, the carrier cannot be freed from inspection of quarantine pest and diseases.

6. Destruction
Carriers of quarantinable pest and diseases shall be destroyed if it become evident that:

a) After discharge from conveyance and subsequent inspection, the carrier is infested by quarantinable pest and diseases, or is in decaying condition, damage, or belong to those species prohibited to be imported.
b) After refusal of entry, the carrier is not moved out (re-export) of the territory of the Republic of Indonesia by its owner within the stipulated period of time, or
c) After observation in isolation, the carrier is not free from quarantinable pest and diseases, or
d) After discharge from the conveyance and subsequent treatment, the carrier cannot be freed from quarantine pest and diseases.

7. Release
Carrier of quarantine pest and diseases shall be released if it becomes evident that: 

a) After inspection, the carrier is free from quarantinable pest and diseases, or
b) After observation in isolation, the carrier is free from quarantinable pest and diseases, or
c) After treatment, the carrier can be freed from quarantine pest and diseases, or
d) After detention, the required documents have been fully complied with.


c. Rules and Regulations
Basic and fundamental to fish quarantine measures in Indonesia is Law No. 16 of 1992 concerning Animal, Fish and Plant Quarantine, which was published and came into effect on 8 June 1992. In general, with the issuance of
this law, all regulations issued before it became invalid. However, all existing executive regulations, as long as they are not in contradiction with this law, remain in force pending the issuance of new executive regulations under this
law. Furthermore, by the enaction of Government Regulation No. 15 of 2002 concerning Fish Quarantine, basic legal conditions required for the implementation of fish quarantine actions became stronger. Law No. 16 of 1992 and Government Regulation No. 15 of 2002 put into order, among others, basic provision on quarantine requirement, quarantine actions, quarantine area, kinds of pests and their carrier, places of entry and export, development of
quarantine mindedness, investigation and penalty. As already mentioned earlier, existing executive regulations remain in force as long as they are not in contradiction with Law No. 16 of 1992. A comprehensive list of legislations related to fish quarantine and legislation, and on the restriction of movement of certain fish species are in Appendix 4 and 5, respectively.

d. Facilities, Standard Methods and Manpower
Diagnostic methods for aquatic animal diseases that have already been set up and recommended by the OIE will be adopted. By using that method, accurate results will be achieved and the risk on the introduction of dangerous pathogens can be mitigated or eliminated. Most developed countries have already set up complex conditions and requirements that should be met by their trading partners. To fulfill those requirements, countries need to develop capability to adopt the standard and code recommended by the OIE, such as setting up of facilities and laboratories for fish disease diagnosis. On the other hand, there is also a need to improve fish health status by upgrading culture methods and sanitation system in fish production facilities. As already mentioned, standards and codes on aquatic animal health recommended by the OIE have to be adopted by WTO member countries. The Government of Indonesia is aware that technical capability of quarantine inspectors on virus detection is very limited. It is, therefore, recommended that ASEAN will organize a training in order to strengthen capability in protecting the region from introduced viral diseases of common concern. Recognizing this situation, Indonesia recently conducted trainings on disease diagnostics using histopathology and PCR technology. These trainings were conducted in collaboration with universities and research institutes. Standardized training on aquatic animal diseases organized by the ASEAN will be more effective to properly improve technical capability of fish quarantine inspectors in the region.

IV-3. List of Quarantinable/Notifiable Fish/Crustacean Diseases in Indonesia

Based on Ministerial Decree No. 17/2003, there are 51 quarantinable fish diseases in Indonesia. Of these, 18 are viral, 11 bacterial, 5 mycotic and 17 are parasitic diseases.

A. Viral Diseases

1. Channel catfish virus disease (CCVD)
2. Spring viraemia of carp (SVC) & Swimbladder inflammation (SBI)
3. Infectious pancreatic necrosis (IPN)
4. Infectious haematopoetic necrosis (IHN)
5. Lymphocystis
6. Infectious hypodermal and haematopoetic necrosis virus (IHHNV)
7. Baculovirus penaei (BP)
8. Monodon baculovirus (MBV)
9. Baculovirus midgut gland necrosis (BMGN)
10. Yellow head disease (YHD)
11. Hepatopancreatic parvovirus (HPV)
12. Taura syndrome virus (TSV)
13. White spot syndrome virus (WSSV)
14. Golden eye disease (GED) or Sleepy grouper disease (SGD)
15. Lymphoidal parvovirus
16. Type C baculovirus (TCBV)
17. Viral nervous necrosis (VNN)
18. Epithelioma papillosum (Herpesvirus cyprini)

B. Bacterial Diseases

1. Furunculosis (Aeromonas salmonocida)
2. Bacterial kidney disease (BKD) (Renibacterium salmoninarum)
3. Fish mycobacteriosis (Mycobacterium marinum, M. fortuitum, M.chelonei)
4. Nocardiosis (Nocardia sp.)
5. Edwarsiellosis (Edwardsiella tarda)
6. Enteric septicaemia of catfish (Edwardsiella ictaluri)
7. Streptococcosis (Streptococcus sp.)
8. Pasteurellosis (Pasteurella piscicida)
9. Enteritic red mouth disease (Yersinia ruckeri)
10. Gaffkemia (Aeromonas invadans var. homari)
11. Red spot disease (Pseudomonas anguilliseptica)

C. Mycotic Diseases

1. Sand paper disease/Swinging disease/Ichthyoporosis (Ichthyophonushofferi) 
2. Branchiomycosis (Branchiomyces sanguinis)
3. Branchiomycosis (Branchiomyces demigrane)
4. Aphanomycosis (Aphanomyces astaci)
5. Epizootic ulcerative syndrome (Aphanomyces invadans)

D. Parasitic Diseases

1. Whirling disease (Myxobolus/Myxosoma cerebralis)
2. Pleistophorosis (Pleisthopora hyphessobrycon)
3. Pleistophorosis (Pleisthopora anguillarum)
4. Ceratomyxosis (Ceratomyxa shasta)
5. Henneguyan disease (Henneguya exiilis)
6. Cotton shrimp disease (Thelohania duorara)
7. Cotton shrimp disease (Thelohania penaei)
8. Bonamiosis (Bonamia ostreae)
9. Haplosporidiosis (Haplosporidium nelsonii)
10. Haplosporidiosis (Haplosporidium costale)
11. Marteilosis (Marteilia refrigens)
12. Marteilosis (Marteilia sydneyii)
13. Perkinsiosis (Perkinsus marinus)
14. Ergasiliosis (Ergasilus sieboldi)
15. White tumor in siam catfish (Nosema sp.)
16. Lytoceatosis (Lytoceatus parvulus)
17. Paragonimiasis (Paragonimus pulmonalis)

V. Research and Training of Fish Health Staff for Quarantine, Diagnosis, and Surveillance of Diseases of Aquatic Animals 

Current research activities are mainly focused on the four major fish diseases: WSSV, TSV, VNN and KHV and conducted at the Fish Health Research Laboratory, Research Institute for Freshwater Fisheries in Bogor, West Java. Research is also going on at the Research Institute for Brackiswater Fisheries in Maros, South Sulawesi and at the Research Institute for Coastal Fisheries in Gondol, Bali.

There are also various implementing units under Directorate General of
Aquaculture where research is conducted to some extent. These are the:

1. Brackishwater Aquaculture Development Centre (BBBAP, Jepara)
2. Brackishwater Aquaculture Development Centre (BBAP, Situbondo)
3. Marine Aquaculture Development Centre (BBL, Lampung)
4. Freshwater Aquaculture Development Centre (BBAT, Sukabumi)
5. Freshwater Aquaculture Development Centre (BBAT, Jambi)
6. Brackishwater Aquaculture Development Centre (BBAP, Takalar)
7. Marine Aquaculture Development Centre (LBL, Batam)
8. Marine Aquaculture Development Centre (LBL, Ujung Bate)
9. Marine Aquaculture Development Centre (LBL, Lombok)
10. Freshwater Aquaculture Development Centre (LBAT, Mandiangin)
11. Marine Aquaculture Development Centre (LBL, Ambon)
12. Freshwater Aquaculture Development Centre (LBAT, Tatelu)

In addition, there are other implementing units under the Provincial
Fisheries Service:

13. Marine and Brackishwater Aquaculture Development Centre (UPBAPL Karawang, West Java)
14. Brackishwater Aquaculture Development Centre (UPBAP Bangil, East Java)
15. Brackishwater Aquaculture Development Centre (BBAP Pangkep, South Sulawesi)

University-based research is being conducted at:
16. Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Bogor Agricultural University, West Java
17. Faculty of Fisheries, Bogor Agricultural University, West Java
18. Faculty of Fisheries, Diponegoro University, Central Java
19. Faculty of Fisheries, Gajah Mada University, Jogjakarta
20. Faculty of Fisheries, Airlangga University, East Java
21. Faculty of Fisheries, Brawijaya University, East Java

As for training, the courses that provide necessary skills to conduct
quarantine, diagnosis and inspection of aquatic animals include the following:

  1. Basic training on fish health management

  2. Advanced training on fish health management, including parasitology, mycology, bacteriology, histopathology, immunology and molecular biology

  3. Use of rapid diagnostic techniques

  4. PCR methodology

  5. Fish medicine

For surveillance activities, the skills required are more advanced since the
activity entails more expertise and training in the following aspects are
necessary:

1. Histopathology (long term training)
2. Epidemiology (short and long term training)
3. Virology (short and long term training)
4. Rapid diagnostics
5. Developing program on surveillance and monitoring

References

Arthur JR. 2003. Fish Health Management for Indonesia. A consultancy report of Project TCP/INS/2905 (A): Health Management in Freshwater Aquaculture. FAO, Rome, 25 p.

Bastiawan D, Taukhid, Rukyani A. 1997. Culture and specimen preservation techniques of mycotic disease group. Paper presented in a Seminar on Evaluation of Fish Quarantine Diseases, Cipanas, West Java. 9 p.

Callinan RB, Paclibare JO, Reantaso MB, Lumanlan-Mayo SC, Fraser GC, Sammut J. 1995. EUS outbreaks in estuarine fish in Australia and the Philippines: Association with acid sulfate soils, rainfall, and Aphanomyces,
p. 291-298. In: Shariff M, Arthur JR and Subasinghe RP (eds). Diseases in Asian Aquaculture II. Fish Health Section, Asian Fisheries Society, Manila, Philippines.

Cameron A. 2003. Report of International Consultant in Epidemiology. Health Management in Freshwater Aquaculture. TCP/INS/2905(A). FAO, Rome, 25 p.

Chanratchakool P, Limsuwan C. 1998. Application of PCR and formalin treatment to prevent white spot disease in shrimp, p. 287-290. In: Flegel TW (ed) Advances in Shrimp Biotechnology. National Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, Bangkok. Directorate General for Aquaculture (DGA). 2003. Indonesian Aquaculture Statistic. Directorate General for Aquaculture. Jakarta. 127 p.

Djajadiredja R, Panjaitan TH, Rukyani A, Sarono A, Satyani D, Supriyadi H. 1983. Country Report. Indonesia, p. 19-30. In: FB Davy and A Chouinard (eds.) Fish Quarantine and Fish Diseases in Southeast Asia. Report of a Workshop held in Jakarta, Indonesia, 7-10 December 1982. International Development Research Centre of Canada (IDRC-210e) Ottawa, Canada, 72 p.

Gilad SO, Yun S, Andree KB, Adkison MA, Zlotkin A, Bercovier H, Eldar A, Hedrick RP. 2002. Initial characteristics of koi herpesvirus and development of a polymerase chain reaction assay to detect the virus in koi, Cyprinus carpio koi. Dis. Aquat. Org. 48: 101-108.

Gray WL, Mullis L, LaPatra SE, Groff JM, Goodwin A. 2002. Detection of koi herpesvirus DNA in tissues of infected fish. J. Fish Dis. 25: 171-178. 

Hadie LE, Hadie W, Hikmayani Y, Gunadi B, Wakhid A. 2001. Opportunity and prospect of freshwater shrimp (Macrobrachium rosenbergii) culture. Paper presented in 'Release of new strain and business meeting of freshwater
shrimp', 24 July 2002, West Java, Indonesia. 20 p. (in Indonesian).

Mangunwiryo H. 1997. Country Paper: Indonesia, p. 51-64. In: Humphrey J, Arthur JR, Subasinghe RP and Phillips MJ (eds). Aquatic Animal Quarantine and Health Certification in Asia, FAO Fisheries Technical Paper No. 373. 

Owens L. 1994. Sleepy grouper disease in Indonesia. A report prepared by the Department of Biomedical and Tropical Veterinary Sciences, James Cook University of North Queensland, Townsville, Australia. 

Rukyani A. 2001. Control strategy of viral diseases in grouper culture, p. 27- 34. In: Sudradjat A, Heruwati ES, Poernomo A, Rukyani A, Widodo J, Danakusumah E (eds). Proceedings of the Marine Culture Technology and
Development of Sea Farming in Indonesia (in Indonesian).

Rukyani A. 1993. The status of aquaculture and fish disease problems in Indonesia. Paper presented at the International Workshop and Training Course on Quick Diagnostic Methods and Bio-ecological Control of Fish
and Shrimp Diseases. 29 July-7 August 1993, Vietnam.

Rukyani A. 1994. Yellow head disease in shrimp. Trubus, March, 1994. p. 293 (in Indonesian).

Rukyani A. 2002. Koi Herpesvirus in Indonesia. Report of KHV epidemic to OIE by the Directorate of Fish Health and Environment, DGA, Jakarta. 

Rukyani A, Sunarto A. 1998. Non-specific pathogen resistant (NsPR) Penaeus monodon: a complementary SPF broodstock development. Paper presented in the Workshop on the Development of Penaeus monodon Disease Free
Broodstock in ASEAN Country held on 23-24 March, Jakarta, Indonesia. 15 p.

Sachlan M. 1952. Notes on parasites of freshwater fishes in Indonesia. Central Inland Fisheries Research Station 2:1-59.

Sugama K. 2003. Culture status of introduced shrimp and the prospects for its development in freshwater ponds. Warta Perikanan p.19-22 (in Indonesian). 

Sunarto A. 1995. Watch out for white spot disease in shrimp. INFOVET, April 1995, p.30-31 (in Indonesian with abstract in English).

Sunarto A, Taukhid, Rukyani A, Koesharyani I, Supriyadi H, Huminto H, Agungpriyono DR, Pasaribu FH, Widodo, Herdikiawan D, Rukmono D. 2002. Field investigations on a serious disease outbreak among koi and common
carp (Cyprinus carpio) in Indonesia. Paper presented in the 5th Symposium on Diseases in Asian Aquaculture, 24-28 November 2002, Gold Cost, Australia. 

Surahmat and Suparno. 1995. What is Pest Risk Analysis (PRA). Paper presented at the Seminar on Fish Quarantine held on 24-26 January 1995 at the Center for Agricultural Quarantine, Jakarta, Indonesia. 

Sutanto H. 2003. Koi. PT Penebar Swadaya. p.78.


Zafran and Yuasa K. 1999. History of VNN disease in Indonesia. Lolitkanta News Letter, 15: 3-4 (in Indonesian).

Appendix 1. Summary of Current Mandates of Governmental Departments
and other Agencies Concerned with Fish Health Management (Arthur, 2003)

Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries (MMAF)

Directorate General for Aquaculture
Directorate for Fish Health and the Environment

  • Develops policy and legislation related to fish quarantine (shared)
  • Responsible for disease control and prevention in aquaculture
  • Responsible for conducting import risk analysis (IRA)
  • Controls introduction of fish into inland waters
  • Responsible for disease monitoring and surveillance activities
  • Submits reports on national disease status to FAO/NACA
  • Responsible for extension activities for fish disease


National Commission on Introductions and Transfers (Proposed)

  • Reports to the Director General for Aquaculture Universities
  • Provide ad hoc diagnostic expertise and advice
  • Training
  • Applied research

Ministry of Trade

  • Concerned with fees for quarantine services

Ministry of Health

  • Concerns related to zoonotic diseases (i.e., those transmitted from aquatic animals and their products to man)

Ministry of Forestry

  • Enforces CITES
  • Concerns about impacts of exotic diseases on biodiversity

National Commission on Fish Health (and other committees)

  • Reports to the Director General for Aquaculture
  • Provides advice on fish health issues

Other Agencies with Related Concerns Research Agency for Marine Affairs and Fisheries Central Research Institute for Aquaculture

  • Conducts research on diseases of fish

Secretariat General Center for Fish Quarantine

  • Develops regulations, technical guidance and standards for fish quarantine
  • Implements quarantine for both international and domestic movements of live fish, including: issuance of health certificates, border inspections, laboratory diagnostics, quarantine of shipments
  • Develops technical cooperation with other institutions, both nationally and internationally

Bureau of Law 

  • Evaluation of laws
  • Stakeholder consultation process

Ministry of Agriculture


Chief Veterinary Officer

  • Official reporting to OIE (However, fish disease reporting is done by MMAF via FAO/NACA)

Appendix 2. Interrelationships for Governmental Department and other 
Agencies Concerned with Fish Health Management (Arthur, 2003)

Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries

Secretariat General
(6 agencies including quarantine)
Research Agency for Marine Affairs and Fisheries
Directorate General of Aquaculture

Center for Fish Quarantine

National Fish Health Committee

National Committee on Introductions & Transfers (Proposed)
Five Sub-Directorates

  • Fish Disease Monitoring & Evaluation
  • Fish Disease Control & Eradication
  • Quality Control & Fish Medicine Certification
  • Environmental Monitoring & Evaluation
  • Aquaculture Environmental Protection

Three Sub-Directorates

  • Technical Services
  • Administration
  • Program for Overseas Collaboration


Directorate for Fish Health & Environment
Others with Potential Involvement

  • Universities (4 with fish health expertise)
  • Private aquaculturists (farmer's organizations)
  • Ornamental fish importers
  • Sportsfishermen
  • International agencies
  • International experts/universities

Fish Quarantine Offices, Stations and Checkpoints

  • Fish Quarantine Regional Offices (2)
  • Class I Fish Quarantine Stations (7)
  • Class II Fish Quarantine Stations (5)
  • Fish Quarantine Substations (27)
  • Domestic Checkpoints (more than 300)

Research Centers

  • Research Center for Aquaculture, Fish Health Research Laboratory
  • Four other centers with no activities related to fish health (Marine Technology; Capture Fisheries; Marine Territory and Non-biotic Resources; Fish Processing; and Social Economics of Marine Affairs and Fisheries)

Other Agencies with Related Concerns (Liaison Required) :

Ministry of Health

  •  Concerns related to zoonotic disease

Ministry of Trade

  • Liaison concerning fees for quarantine services

Ministry of Health

  • Concerns related to zoonotic diseases

Ministry of Forestry

  • Protection of endangered species (CITES)

Ministry of Agriculture

  • Chief Veterinary Officer (OIE reporting)